Friday, September 21, 2012

Fish Processing


Fish Processing
fish processing, preparation of seafood and freshwater fish for human consumption.
The word fish is commonly used to describe all forms of edible finfish, mollusks (e.g., clams and oysters), and crustaceans (e.g., crabs and lobsters) that inhabit an aquatic environment. Fish from the marine and freshwater bodies of the world have been a major source of food for humankind since before recorded history. Harvesting wild fish from fresh and marine waters and raising cultured fish in ponds were practices of ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and other Mediterranean peoples. Rudimentary processing techniques such as sun-drying, salting, and smoking were used by these ancient groups to stabilize the fish supply. Modern methods of processing and preservation have encouraged the consumption of many species of fish that are popular throughout the world.
Table Of Contents
Characteristics of fish
Structure of skeletal muscles
The majority of edible fish products are derived from the skeletal muscles (flesh), which represent more than 50 percent of the total body mass of these animals. The skeletal muscles of fish differ from those of mammals and birds in that they are largely composed of stacks of short bundles of muscle fibres called myomeres. The myomeres are separated by thin horizontal (myosepta) and vertical (myocommata) layers of connective tissue. The unique structure and thin connective tissue sheaths of fish muscle give the meat its characteristic soft, flaky texture.
The skeletal muscles of fish are composed mostly of white, fast-twitch fibres. The high percentage of white fibres allows fish to swim with sudden, rapid movements and gives the meat its white colour. These fibres primarily metabolize glucose, a simple sugar released from muscle glycogen stores, for energy production through anaerobic (i.e., in the absence of oxygen) glycolysis. Therefore, white fibres contain relatively little myoglobin, the oxygen-binding protein that provides the red colour of muscles in other animals.
Nutrient composition
The composition of fish may vary considerably—especially in their fat content—during certain growth periods and annual spawning or migration periods. In addition, the composition of fish bred in captivity (i.e., aquaculture fish) may vary according to their artificial diet.
Nutrient composition of raw edible portion of fish species (per 100 g)
species
energy (kcal)
water
(g)
protein
(g)
fat
(g)
cholesterol (mg)
calcium (mg)
iron
(mg)
riboflavin (mg)
niacin (mg)
catfish, channel (farmed)
135
75.38
15.55
7.59
47
9
0.50
0.075
2.304
cod, Atlantic
82
81.22
17.81
0.67
43
16
0.38
0.065
2.063
grouper, mixed species
92
79.22
19.38
1.02
37
27
0.89
0.005
0.313
haddock
87
79.92
18.91
0.72
57
33
1.05
0.037
3.803
halibut, Atlantic or Pacific
110
77.92
20.81
2.29
32
47
0.84
0.075
5.848
herring, Atlantic
158
72.05
17.96
9.04
60
57
1.10
0.233
3.217
mackerel, Atlantic
205
63.55
18.60
13.89
70
12
1.63
0.312
9.080
salmon, Atlantic
142
68.50
19.84
6.34
55
12
0.80
0.380
7.860
salmon, pink
116
76.35
19.94
3.45
52
--
0.77
--
--
trout, rainbow (wild)
119
71.87
20.48
3.46
59
67
0.70
0.105
5.384
tuna, bluefin
144
68.09
23.33
4.90
38
--
1.02
0.251
8.654
clam, mixed species
74
81.82
12.77
0.97
34
46
13.98
0.213
1.765
crab, blue
87
79.02
18.06
1.08
78
89
0.74
--
--
lobster, northern
90
76.76
18.80
0.90
95
--
--
0.048
1.455
oyster, Pacific
81
82.06
9.45
2.30
--
8
5.11
0.233
2.010
scallop, mixed species
88
78.57
16.78
0.76
33
24
0.29
0.065
1.150
shrimp, mixed species
106
75.86
20.31
1.73
152
52
2.41
0.034
2.552

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Composition of Foods, Agriculture Handbook no. 8-11.
Proteins
Fish are an excellent source of high-quality protein. Mollusks are generally lower in protein compared with finfish and crustaceans because of their high water content. The proteins found in fish are essentially the same as those found in the meat derived from other animals—that is, the sarcoplasmic proteins (e.g., enzymes and myoglobin), the contractile or myofibrillar proteins (e.g., actin and myosin), and the connective tissue proteins (i.e., collagen).
Fat
The fat in fish is mostly liquid (i.e., fish oil), because it contains a relatively low percentage of saturated fatty acids. Fish belong in a special nutritional class because they contain the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids—eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)—which have been shown to protect against several diseases, including heart disease. Unlike land plants, the marine and freshwater plants on which fish feed are rich in EPA and DHA.
Vitamins and minerals
Fish provide a number of important vitamins and minerals to the diet. They are a good source of the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K and the B vitamins riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine. The mineral content includes calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron.
Microbiology
Because of their soft tissues and aquatic environment, fish are extremely susceptible to microbial contamination. At the time of harvest, fish carry a high microbial load on the surface of their skin, in their intestinal tract, and in their gills.
The type and number of microorganisms that live in fish vary according to the season, the species, and the natural habitat. Additional contamination may occur during the harvesting, handling, or processing of the fish. Common spoilage microorganisms of fish include species of Pseudomonas, Moraxella, and Acinetobacter, found mainly in marine fish, and Bacillus and Micrococcus, found in freshwater fish. Fish may also contain pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli. Pathogenic contamination is of special concern with mollusks because they are often eaten raw and as whole animals.

Handling of harvested fish
The retention of nutritional properties and product quality of fish is dependent on proper handling of the catch after it has been harvested from its aquatic environment.
Chilling
Harvested fish must be immediately stored in a low-temperature environment such as ice or refrigerated seawater. This chilling process slows the growth of microorganisms that live in fish and inhibits the activity of enzymes. Because fish have a lower body temperature, softer texture, and less connective tissue than land animals, they are much more susceptible to microbial contamination and structural degradation. If immediate chilling is not possible, then the fish must generally be sold and eaten on the day of the harvest.
Ice cooling and holding normally requires a one-to-one or one-to-two weight ratio of ice to fish, depending on the specific geographic location and the time it takes to transport the fish to the processing plant. Refrigerated seawater cooling and holding causes less bruising and other structural damage to the fish carcasses than ice cooling. However, fish cooled in refrigerated seawater absorbs salt from the water. For this reason fish that is destined for sale on the fresh or frozen market may be held in refrigerated seawater for only a limited amount of time. The addition of salt during canning or smoking processes is adjusted in order to compensate for any absorbed salt.
Preprocessing
Preprocessing of fish prepares the raw material for final processing. It is often performed on shipboard or in a shore-based plant and includes such operations as inspection, washing, sorting, grading, and butchering of the harvested fish.
The butchering of fish involves the removal of nonedible portions such as the viscera, head, tail, and fins. Depending on the butchering process, as much as 30 to 70 percent of the fish may be discarded as waste or reduced to cheap animal feed. The lower figure applies when the fish is canned or sold as “whole.” The higher figure applies when the fish is filleted or made into other pure meat products; in these cases the skeleton is discarded with as much as 50 percent of the edible flesh attached. Efforts to utilize this discarded fraction for the production of alternative food products have begun in the fish industry. (See below Total utilization of raw materials.)
Final processing of fish
The four basic procedures used in the final processing of fish products are heating, freezing, controlling water activity (by drying or adding chemicals), and irradiating. All these procedures increase the shelf life of the fish by inhibiting the mechanisms that promote spoilage and degradation. Each of these procedures also has an effect on the nutritional properties of the final product.

Heating

Heat treatment can significantly alter the quality and nutritional value of fish. Fish is exposed to heat during both the cooking process and the canning process.

Cooking

Fish is cooked in order to produce changes in the texture and flavour of the product and to kill pathogenic microorganisms. Heating fish to an internal temperature above 66 °C or 150 °F (i.e., pasteurization conditions) is sufficient to kill the most resistant microorganisms. The cooking time must be closely regulated in order to prevent excessive loss of nutrients by heat degradation, oxidation, or leaching (the loss of water-soluble nutrients into the cooking liquid).

Canning

The canning process is a sterilization technique that kills microorganisms already present on the fish, prevents further microbial contamination, and inactivates degradative enzymes. In this process fish are hermetically sealed in containers and then heated to high temperatures for a given amount of time. Canned fish can be stored for several years. However, sterilization does not kill all microorganisms, and bacterial growth and gas production may occur if the products are stored at very high temperatures.
Because the severe thermal conditions of canning cause the disintegration and discoloration of the flesh of many species of fish, only a few types of fish are available as canned products. The most common types are tuna, salmon, herring, sardines, and shrimp. The thermal processing does not have a detrimental effect on the high-quality protein of the fish. In addition, these species are often canned with their bones left intact. The bones become soft and edible, significantly increasing the level of calcium present in the fish product. Tuna is an exception; because of special handling considerations, the bones of tuna are removed prior to canning. Tuna is normally caught far offshore and must be frozen and held for some period of time prior to canning. During this freezing and holding period unsaturated fatty acids are oxidized, causing the tuna to become rancid. The rancidity is removed by precooking, and the bones are removed at this time in order to facilitate the cutting and preparation of the meat for canning.

Freezing

Of the many processing methods used to preserve fish, only freezing can maintain the flavour and quality of fresh fish. Freezing greatly reduces or halts the biochemical reactions in fish flesh. For instance, in the absence of free water, enzymes cannot react to soften and degrade the flesh. The three steps for freezing fish include immediate cooling and holding, rapid freezing, and cold storage. If fish is frozen improperly, structural integrity may be compromised because of enzymatic degradation, texture changes, and dehydration.

Immediate cooling

The rapid cooling and holding of fish at temperatures between 2 and −2 °C (36 and 28 °F) takes place immediately after the fish have been harvested. (See above Handling of harvested fish: Chilling.)

Rapid freezing

The key to freezing is rapid reduction of the temperature to between −2 and −7 °C (28 and 20 °F). This temperature range represents the zone of maximum ice crystal formation in the cells of the flesh. If water in the cells freezes quickly, then the ice crystals will remain small and cause minimal damage to the cells. However, slow freezing results in the formation of large ice crystals and the rupturing of the cell membranes. When slow-frozen flesh is thawed, the ruptured cells release water (called drip) and many compounds that provide certain flavour characteristics of fish, resulting in a dry, tasteless product. Fish that passes through the zone of maximum ice crystal formation in less than one hour will generally have minimum drip loss upon thawing.

Cold storage

Once fish is frozen, it must be stored at a constant temperature of −23 °C (−10 °F) or below in order to maintain a long shelf life and ensure quality. A large portion of fresh fish is water (e.g., oysters are more than 80 percent water). Because the water in fish contains many dissolved substances, it does not uniformly freeze at the freezing point of pure water. Instead, the free water in fish freezes over a wide range, beginning at approximately −2 °C (28 °F). The amount of remaining free water decreases until the product reaches a temperature of approximately −40 °C (−40 °F). Fish held below that temperature and packaged so as not to allow water loss through sublimation can be stored for an indefinite period. Unfortunately, there are relatively few commercial freezers capable of storing fish at -40° because of the tremendous variation in energy costs. Fish are therefore normally stored at −18 to −29 °C (0 to −20 °F), resulting in a variable shelf life ranging from a few weeks to almost one year.

Controlling water activity

Reducing the water activity of fish inhibits the growth of microorganisms and slows the chemical reactions that may be detrimental to the quality of the fish product. The control of water activity in fish is accomplished by drying, adding chemicals, or a combination of both methods.

Drying

The principal methods of drying, or dehydrating, fish are by forced-air drying, vacuum drying, or vacuum freeze-drying. Each of these methods involves adding heat to aid in the removal of water from the fish product. During the initial stages of drying, known as the constant-rate period, water is evaporated from the surface of the product and the temperature of the product remains constant. In the final stages of drying, known as the falling-rate period, the temperature of the product increases, causing water to move from the interior to the surface for evaporation.
Curing
Curing reduces water activity through the addition of chemicals, such as salt, sugars, or acids. There are two main types of salt-curing used in the fish industry: dry salting and pickle-curing. In dry salting the butchered fish is split along the backbone and buried in salt (called a wet stack). Brine is drained off until the water content of the flesh is reduced to approximately 50 percent (the typical water content of fresh fish is 75 to 80 percent) and the salt content approaches 25 percent. In heavy or hard-cure salting, an additional step is taken in which warm air is forced over the surface of the fish until the water content is reduced to about 20 percent and the salt content is increased to approximately 30 percent. Most dry-salted fish products are consumed in warm, humid countries or in areas that have few means of holding products in refrigeration or cold storage.
In pickle-curing, fish are preserved in airtight barrels in a strong pickle solution formed by the dissolving of salt in the body fluids. This curing method is used for fatty fish such as herring.
Smoking
Traditionally, smoking was a combination of drying and adding chemicals from the smoke to the fish, thus preserving and adding flavour to the final product. However, much of the fish smoked today is exposed to smoke just long enough to provide the desired flavour with little, if any, drying. These products, called kippered fish, have short shelf lives, even under refrigeration, since the water activity remains high enough for spoilage organisms to grow.
The smoking process consists of soaking butchered fish in a 70 to 80 percent brine solution for a few hours to overnight, resulting in a 2 to 3 percent salt content in the fish. The fish are then partially dried on racks. As the brine on the surface dries, dissolved proteins produce a glossy appearance, which is one of the commercial criteria for quality. Smoking is carried out in kilns or forced-air smokehouses that expose the fish to smoke from smoldering wood or sawdust. In cold-smoking the temperature does not exceed 29 °C (85 °F), and the fish is not cooked during the process. Hot-smoking is more common and is designed to cook the fish as well as to smoke it.
Irradiating
Irradiation offers a means of pasteurizing or sterilizing a variety of food products. However, the use of this process has not been universally accepted throughout the food industry.
Food irradiators utilize radioisotopes, such as cobalt-60 (60Co) or cesium-137 (137Cs), or electron beam generators to provide a source of ionizing radiation. The irradiation of seafood has been extensively studied since the 1950s. The pasteurization of fresh fish using low-level dosages of ionizing radiation may extend the shelf life of the product up to several weeks. The sensory and nutritional characteristics of the fish are unaffected at these low levels of radiation.

Total utilization of raw materials
In response to an increased demand for “ready-to-eat” fish products, along with a growing awareness of the limited supply of natural fish stocks, the fish industry has developed procedures for more efficient utilization of available raw materials. Because as much as 70 percent of harvested fish has traditionally been discarded or converted into cheap animal feeds, initial efforts to conserve fishery resources have focused on the development of edible products from underutilized species.
Surimi
Surimi was developed in Japan several centuries ago when it was discovered that washing minced fish flesh, followed by heating, resulted in a natural gelling of the flesh. When the surimi was combined with other ingredients, mixed or kneaded, and steamed, various fish gel products called kamaboko (fish cakes) were produced and sold as neriseihin (kneaded seafoods).
Modern surimi production consists of continuous operating lines with automated machinery for heading, gutting, and deboning of the fish; mincing, washing, and pressing (to remove water); and heating of the flesh. The surimi is then mixed with cryoprotectants and frozen for cold storage. Frozen surimi blocks are shipped to processing plants that produce various kamaboko products such as original kamaboko (itatsuki), broiled kamaboko (chikuwa), fried kamaboko (satsumage), and analog products, including imitation crab, scallops, and shrimp.
The chemistry of the surimi process involves the differential extraction of muscle proteins. The water-soluble sarcoplasmic proteins are removed during the washing of the minced flesh. These proteins inhibit the gelling properties of the minced flesh. The flesh is then comminuted with salt, which solubilizes the myofibrillar proteins actin and myosin. Upon heating, the myofibrillar proteins form a network structure that takes on a gellike consistency. Cryoprotectants are necessary to stabilize the myofibrillar protein network during frozen storage.
Minced fish flesh
The success of surimi-based products has stimulated the development of other products made from minced flesh. Minced fish products do not undergo the repeated washing cycles necessary for the production of surimi. Because of the presence of residual oils and sarcoplasmic enzymes (both oil and sarcoplasmic proteins are removed during the washing of surimi), cryoprotectants must also be added to the minced flesh prior to freezing in order to protect the product from oil oxidation and enzyme degradation.
Minced fish flesh is used in a wide variety of products. The largest volumes are extruded into formed patties for main dishes and sandwiches. The forming process involves combining the minced flesh with condiments and extruding the mix under pressure to produce the desired product, much like the formation of hamburger patties and sausages. The formed product may be battered and breaded in a final processing step. Other minced flesh products include nuggets and items used as hors d’oeuvres, fish chowders, and smoked fish sticks.
George M. Pigott

fish processing
Bibliography
Table Of Contents
R. MacRae, R.K. Robinson, and M.J. Sadler (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology, and Nutrition, 8 vol. (1993); and Y.H. Hui (ed.), Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology, 4 vol. (1992), are general works that cover all aspects of the science of food. P. Fellows, Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practices (1988), is an introductory text.
R. Paul Singh
George M. Pigott and Barbee W. Tucker, Seafood: The Effects of Technology on Nutrition (1990), aimed at a general audience, discusses the effects that handling and processing methods may have on the nutritional value of seafood. E. Graham Bligh (ed.), Seafood Science and Technology (1992), written for the professional, covers the basic principles of seafood chemistry, microbiology, and technology. Two articles by George M. Pigott, “Flavors and Acceptance of Formulated Seafood Products,” Food Reviews International, 6(4):661–680 (1990), and “Who Is the 21st Century Consumer?” INFOFISH International, 1:12–20 (January–February 1994), are also useful.
George M. Pigott

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